Dromedary

The dromedary drɒmədɛri or -ədri, also called the Arabian camel Camelus dromedarius, is a large, even-toed ungulate with one hump on its back. Greek philosopher Aristotle 4th century BCE was the first to describe the species, and the animal was given its current binomial name by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish zoologist. 

The dromedary is the largest camel after the Bactrian camel. Adult male dromedaries stand 1.8–2 m 5.9–6.6 ft  at the shoulder, while females are 1.7–1.9 m 5.6–6.2 ft tall. The weight typically ranges from 400–600 kg 880–1,320 lb in males and 300–540 kg 660–1,190 lb in females. The distinctive features of this camel are its long curved neck, narrow chest and only one hump compared to the two on the Bactrian camel, thick double-layered eyelashes and bushy eyebrows.The coat is generally a shade of brown, but can range from black to nearly white.The hump, which can be 20 cm 7.9 in tall or more, is made up of fat bound together by fibrous tissue.

Their diet includes foliage and desert vegetation, like thorny plants which their extremely tough mouths allow them to eat. These camels are active in the day, and rest together in groups. Led by a dominant male, each herd consists of about 20 individuals. Some males form bachelor groups. Dromedaries show no signs of territoriality, as herds often merge during calamities. Predators in the wild include wolves and lions; and tigers in the past. Dromedaries use a wide set of vocalizations to communicate with each other. They have various adaptations to help them exist in their desert habitat. Dromedaries have bushy eyebrows and two rows of long eyelashes to protect their eyes, and can close their nostrils to face sandstorms. 

Their ears are also lined with protective hair. When water-deprived, they can fluctuate their body temperature by 6 °C, changing from a morning minimum of 34° to a maximum of 40° or so in the afternoon. This reduces heat flow from the environment to the body and thereby water loss through perspiration is minimised. They have specialized kidneys, which make them able to tolerate water loss of more than 30% of their body mass; a loss of 15% would prove fatal in most other animals. Mating usually occurs in winter, often overlapping the rainy season. One calf is born after the gestational period of 15 months, and is nurtured for about two years.The term camel could have been derived from the Latin camelus, or the Greek kamēlos. It could also have originated from an old Semitic language, for example from the Hebrew gāmāl or the Arabic ǧamal. A northern oïl dialect, such as Old Norman or Old Picard, could have also been an intermediate, where the word for "camel" was camel compare Old French chamel, modern French chameau. The scientific name of the dromedary is Camelus dromedarius, which could be based on the Greek δρομὰς κάμηλος dromas kamelos, which means running camel.

Vipera ammodytes

Vipera ammodytes is a venomous viper species found in southern Europe through to the Balkans and parts of the Middle East. It is reputed to be the most dangerous of the European vipers due to its large size, long fangs up to 13 mm and high venom toxicity. The specific name, ammodytes, is derived from the Greek words ammos, meaning sand, and dutes, meaning burrower or diver, despite its preference for rocky habitats. 

Five subspecies are currently recognized, i V. ammodytes grows to a maximum total length body + tail of 95 cm 37.62 in, although individuals usually measure less than 85 cm 33.66 in. Maximum length also depends on race, with northern forms distinctly larger than southern ones. According to Strugariu 2006, the average total length is 50–70 cm 20 to 28 in with reports of specimens over 1 m (40 in) in total length. Females are usually larger and more heavily built, although the largest specimens on record are males. The head is covered in small, irregular scales that are either smooth or only weakly keeled, except for a pair of largesupraocular scales that extend beyond the posterior margin of the eye. 10-13 small scales border the eye, and two rows separate the eye from the supralabials. 

The nasal scale is large, single (rarely divided), and separated from the rostral by a single nasorostral scale. The rostral scale is wider than it is long.The most distinctive characteristic is a single horn on the snout, just above the rostral scale. It consists of 9-17 scales arranged in 2 (rarely 2 or 4) transverse rows. It grows to a length of about 5 mm (0.20 in) and is actually soft and flexible. In southern subspecies, the horn sits vertically upright, while in V. a. Ammodytes it points diagonally forward. The body is covered with strongly keeled dorsal scales in 21 or 23 rows rarely 25 at mid-body. The scales bordering theventrals are smooth or weakly keeled. Males have 133-161 ventral scales and 27-46 paired subcaudals.

 Females have 135-164 and 24-38 respectively. The anal scale is single. ncluding the nominate subspecies described here. The color pattern is different for males and females. In males, the head has irregular dark brown, dark gray, or black markings. A thick, black stripe runs from behind the eye to behind the angle of the jaw. The tongue is usually black, and the iris has a golden or coppery color. Males have a characteristic dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that often connects to the dorsal zigzag pattern. The ground color for males varies and includes many different shades of gray, sometimes yellowish or pinkish gray, or yellowish brown. The dorsal zigzag is dark gray or black, the edge of which is sometimes darker. A row of indistinct, dark (occasionally yellowish) spots runs along each side, sometimes joined in a wavy band. Females have a similar color pattern, except that it is less distinct and contrasting. They usually lack the dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that the males have. Ground color is variable and tends more towards browns and bronzes, such as grayish brown, reddish brown, copper, dirty cream, or brick red. The dorsal zigzag is a shade of brown.Both sexes have a zigzag dorsal stripe set against a lighter background. This pattern is often fragmented. The belly color varies and can be grayish, yellowish brown, or pinkish, heavily clouded with dark spots. Sometimes the ventral color is black or bluish gray with white flecks and inclusions edged in white. The chin is lighter in color than the belly. Underneath, the tip of the tail may be yellow, orange, orange-red, red, or green. Melanism does occur, but is rare. Juvenile color patterns are about the same as the adults.

Numbat

The numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus), also known as the banded anteater, marsupial anteater, or walpurti, is a marsupialfound in Western Australia. Its diet consists almost exclusively of termites. Once widespread across southern Australia, its range is now restricted to several small colonies, and it is listed as an endangered species.

The numbat is an emblem of Western Australia and protected by The numbat genus Myrmecobius is the sole member of the family Myrmecobiidae, one of the three families that make up the order Dasyuromorphia, the Australian marsupial carnivores. The species is not closely related to other extant marsupials; the current arrangement in the order Dasyuromorphia places its monotypic family with the diverse and carnivorous species of Dasyuridae. 

A closer affinity with the extinct thylacine, contained in the same order, has been proposed. Genetic studies have shown the ancestors of the numbat diverged from other marsupials between 32 and 42 million years ago, during the late Eocene. Two subspecies are recognized, but one of these, the rusty numbat M. f. rufus, has been extinct since at least the 1960s, and only the nominate subspecies M. f. fasciatus remains alive today. As its name implies, the rusty numbat was said to have a more reddish coat than the surviving subspecies. Only a very small number of fossil specimens are known, the oldest dating back to the Pleistocene, and no fossils belonging to other species from the same family have yet been discovered. 

The numbat is a small, colourful creature between 35 and 45 centimetres 14 and 18 in long, including the tail, with a finely pointed muzzle and a prominent, bushy tail about the same length as its body. Colour varies considerably, from soft grey to reddish-brown, often with an area of brick red on the upper back, and always with a conspicuous black stripe running from the tip of the muzzle through the eyes to the bases of the small, round-tipped ears. Between four and eleven white stripes cross the animal's hindquarters, which gradually become fainter towards the midback. The underside is cream or light grey, while the tail is covered with long, grey hair flecked with white. Unlike most other marsupials, the numbat is diurnal, largely because of the constraints of having a specialised diet without having the usual physical equipment for it. Most ecosystems with a generous supply of termites have a fairly large creature with powerful forelimbs bearing heavy claws.] Numbats are not large, and they have five toes on the fore feet, and four on the hind feet. However, like other mammals that eat termites or ants, the numbat has a degenerate jaw with up to 50 very small, nonfunctional teeth, and although it is able to chew, rarely does so, because of the soft nature of its diet.Like many ant-eating animals, the numbat has an unusually long, narrow tongue, coated with sticky saliva produced by large submandibular glands. A further adaptation to the diet is the presence of numerous ridges along the soft palate, which apparently help to scrape termites off the tongue so they can be swallowed. The digestive system is relatively simple, and lacks many of the adaptations found in other entomophagous animals, presumably because termites are easier to digest than ants, having a softer exoskeleton.

Cormorant

Phalacrocoracidae is a family of some 40 species of aquatic birds commonly known as cormorants and shags. Several different classifications of the family have been proposed recently, and the number of genera is disputed. There is no consistent distinction between cormorants and shags, and these appellations have been assigned to different species randomly.Cormorants and shags are medium-to-large birds, with body weight in the range of 0.35–5 kilograms 0.77–11.02 lb and wing span of 45–100 centimetres 18–39 in. 

The majority of species have dark feathers. The bill is long, thin and hooked. Their feet have webbing between all four toes. All species are fish-eaters, catching the prey by diving from the surface. They are excellent divers, and under water they propel themselves with their feet with help from their wings; some cormorant species have been found to dive as deep as 45 metres. They have relatively short wings due to their need for economical movement underwater, and consequently have the highest flight costs of any bird. Cormorants nest in colonies around the shore, on trees, islets or cliffs. They are coastal rather than oceanic birds, and some have colonised inland waters – indeed, the original ancestor of cormorants seems to have been a fresh-water bird. They range around the world, except for the central Pacific islands.

No consistent distinction exists between cormorants and shags. The names cormorant and shag were originally the common names of the two species of the family found in Great Britain, Phalacrocorax carbo now referred to by ornithologists as the great cormorant and P. aristotelis the European shag. Shag refers to the bird's crest, which the British forms of the great cormorant lack. As other species were discovered by English-speaking sailors and explorers elsewhere in the world, some were called cormorants and some shags, depending on whether they had crests or not. Sometimes the same species is called a cormorant in one part of the world and a shag in another, e.g., the great cormorant is called the black shag in New Zealand the birds found in Australasia have a crest that is absent in European members of the species. 

Van Tets 1976 proposed to divide the family into two genera and attach the name "cormorant" to one and shag to the other, but this flies in the face of common usage and has not been widely adopted.The scientific genus name is Latinised Ancient Greek, from φαλακρός phalakros, bald and κόραξ korax, raven. This is often thought to refer to the creamy white patch on the cheeks of adult great cormorants, or the ornamental white head plumes prominent in Mediterranean birds of this species, but is certainly not a unifying characteristic of cormorants. "Cormorant" is a contraction derived either directly from Latin corvus marinus, sea raven or through Brythonic Celtic.Cormoran is the Cornish name of the sea giant in the tale of Jack the Giant Killer. Indeed, sea raven or analogous terms were the usual terms for cormorants in Germanic languages until after the Middle Ages. The French explorer André Thévet commented in 1558,...the beak is similar to that of a cormorant or other corvid, which demonstrates that the erroneous belief that the birds were related to ravens lasted at least to the 16th century.

Pteropus

Bats of the genus Pteropus, belonging to the megabat suborder, Megachiroptera, are the largest bats in the world. They are commonly known as the fruit bats or flying foxes among other colloquial names. They live in the tropics and subtropics of Asia (including the Indian subcontinent), Australia, East Africa, and a number of remote oceanic islands in both the Indian and Pacific Oceans. At least 60 extant species are in this genus. The oldest ancestors of the genus Pteropus to be unearthed appear in the fossil record almost exactly as they are today the only notable differences being early flight adaptations such as a tail for stabilizing. 

The oldest megachiropteran is dated about 35 million years ago, but the preceding gap in the fossil record makes their true lineage unknown.Characteristically, all species of flying foxes only feed on nectar, blossoms, pollen, and fruit, which explains their limited tropical distribution. They do not possess echolocation, a feature which helps the other suborder of bats, the microbats, locate and catch prey such as insects in midair. Instead, smell and eyesight are very well-developed in flying foxes. Feeding ranges can reach up to 40 miles. 

When it locates food, the flying fox "crashes" into foliage and grabs for it. It may also attempt to catch hold of a branch with its hind feet, then swing upside down; once attached and hanging, the fox draws food to its mouth with one of its hind feet or with the clawed thumbs at the top of its wingsMany species are threatened today with extinction, and in particular in the Pacific, a number of species have died out as a result of overharvesting for human consumption. In the Marianas, flying fox meat is considered a delicacy, which led to a large commercial trade. Human consumption of flying fox meat in Guam is hypothesized to have led to an increase of human neurodegenerative illness.  In 1989, all species of Pteropus were placed on Appendix II of CITES and at least seven on Appendix I, which restricts international trade.

 The subspecies P. hypomelanus maris of the Maldives is considered endangered due to limited distribution and excessive culling. The commerce in fruit bats continues either illegally or because of inadequate restrictions. Local farmers may also attack the bats because they feed in their plantations, and in some cultures, their meat is believed to cure asthma. Nonhuman predators include birds of prey, snakes, and other mammals. The pelage is long and silky with a dense underfur. No tail is present. As the name suggests, the head resembles that of a small fox because of the small ears and large eyes. Females have one pair of mammae located in the chest region. Ears are simple long and pointed with the outer margin forming an unbroken ring a defining characteristic of megabats. The toes have sharp, curved claws.

Baboon

Baboons are African and Arabian Old World monkeys belonging to the genus Papio, part of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. The five species are some of the largest non-hominoid members of the primate order; only the mandrill and the drill are larger. Previously, the closely related gelada genus Theropithecus and the two species mandrill and drill of genusMandrillus were grouped in the same genus, and these Old World monkeys are still often referred to as baboons in everyday speech. They range in size and weight depending on species.

The Guinea baboon is 50 cm 20 in and weighs only 14 kg 31 lb, while the largest chacma baboon can b Five species of Papio are commonly recognized, although there is some disagreement about whether they are really fullspecies or subspecies. They are P. ursinus chacma baboon, found in southern Africa, P. papio western, red, or Guinea baboon, found in the far western Africa, P. hamadryas hamadryas baboon, found in the Horn of Africa and southwestern Arabia, P. anubis (olive baboon, found in the north-central African savanna) and P. cynocephalus yellow baboon, found in south-central and eastern Africa. 

Many authors distinguish P. hamadryas as a full species, but regard all the others as subspecies of P. cynocephalus and refer to them collectively as savanna baboons. This may not be helpful: it is based on the argument that the hamadryas baboon is behaviorally and physically distinct from other baboon species, and that this reflects a separate evolutionary history. However, recent morphological and genetic studies of Papio show the hamadryas baboon to be more closely related to the northern baboon species the Guinea and olive baboons than to the southern species the yellow a The traditional five-form classification probably under-represents the variation within Papio. Some commentators argue that at least two more forms should be recognized, including the tiny Kinda baboon P. cynocephalus kindae from Zambia, DR Congo, and Angola, and the gray-footed baboon P. ursinus griseipes found in Zambia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and northern South Africa. However, current knowledge of the morphological, genetic, and behavioral diversity within Papio is too poor to make any final, comprehensive judgment on this matter.nd chacma baboons. All baboons have long, dog-like muzzles, heavy, powerful jaws with sharp canine teeth, close-set eyes, thick fur except on their muzzles, short tails, and rough spots on their protruding buttocks, called ischial callosities. These calluses are nerveless, hairless pads of skin that provide for the sitting comfort of the baboon.All baboon species exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism, usually in size, but also sometimes in colour or canine development. Males of the hamadryas baboon species also have large white manes.Baboons are terrestrial ground dwelling and are found in open savannah, open woodland and hills across Africa. 

Their diets are omnivorous, but mostly herbivorous, yet they eat insects and occasionally prey on fish, trout and salmon if available, shellfish, hares, birds, vervet monkeys, and small antelopes. They are foragers and are active at irregular times throughout the day and night. They can raid human dwellings, and in South Africa, they have been known to prey on sheep and goats.Baboons in captivity have been known to live up to 45 years, while in the wild their life expectancy is about 30 years.Baboons are able to acquire orthographic processing skills, which form part of the ability to read.

Aardvark

The aardvark ɑːrd.vɑːrk ARD-vark; Orycteropus afer is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native to Africa. It is the only living species of the order Tubulidentata, although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike other insectivores, it has a long pig-like snout, which is used to sniff out food. It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding mainly rocky areas. 

A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young. It receives a least concern rating from the IUCN, although its numbers seem to be decreasing. The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called African ant bear anteater, or the  Cape anteater after the Cape of Good Hope. The name aardvark Afrikaans pronunciation: ˈɑːrtfɐrk comes from earlier Afrikaans erdvark and means earthpig or ground pig aarde earth ground, vark pig, because of its burrowing habits similar origin to the name groundhog. The name Orycteropus means burrowing foot, and the name afer refers to Africa. The name of the aardvarks's order,Tubulidentata comes from the tubule style teeth. The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian orderTubulidentata, in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus Orycteropus, the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to the South American anteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. 

The similarities are based on convergent evolution. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews, tenrecs and golden moles. Along with the sirenians, hyraxes,elephants, and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder Afrotheria. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with Condylarthra, and given the clade's status as a wastebasket taxon it may mean some species traditionally classified as condylarths are actually stem-aardvarks Based on fossils, Bryan Patterson has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in Africa around the end of thePaleocene. 

The ptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to Tubulidentata or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates. The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably Myorycteropus africanus from Kenyan Miocene deposits. The earliest example from the Orycteropus genus was the Orycteropus mauritanicus found in Algeria in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally aged version found in Kenya. Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout Europe and the Near East. A close relative lived in Madagascar during the last ice age. The mysterious Pleistocene Plesiorycteropus from Madagascar was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the Eocene. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe thatPlesiorycteropus is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution.

Silvery lutung

The silvery lutung Trachypithecus cristatus, also known as the silvered leaf monkey or the silvery langur, is an Old World monkey. It is arboreal, living in coastal, mangrove, and riverine forests in Pen The silvery lutung is a medium-sized monkey with a long, non-prehensile tail. It has grey-tipped, dark brown or black fur, giving it a uniform silvery appearance. 

Unlike some related species, there are no paler markings on the face or body, except for a patch of whitish hair on the groin of females. A crest of fur runs along the top of the head, and the hair on the cheeks is long, often obscuring the ears. The hands and feet are hairless, with dark coloured skin, and have opposable thumbs and toes. Females range from 46 to 51 centimetres (18 to 20 in) in head-body length, with an average weight of 5.7 kilograms 13 lband a tail length of 67 to 75 centimetres 26 to 30 in. Males are slightly larger, from 50 to 58 centimetres 20 to 23 in in length, with an average weight of 6.6 kilograms 15 lb and a tail length of 67 to 75 centimetres 26 to 30 in. Like other langurs, the silvery lutung has a large three-chambered stomach to digest the cellulose found in its herbivorousdiet. This allows for fermentation of food, and has some similarities with the stomach of ruminants. 

The intestine is unusually long, even compared to those of other langurs, and has a number of pouches along its length, which carry out further fermentation of plant matter. The teeth have grinding ridges and other modifications to allow the more efficient processing of tough leaves. insular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. The silvery lutung is found across Borneo and Sumatra, as well as in parts of the south-western Malay peninsula, the Natuna Islands, and other nearby islands. It inhabits mangrove swamps and nearby forest regions, and generally avoids travelling far from coasts or rivers.The number and identity of subspecies of the silvery lutung is currently debated. The latest analysis confirms the presence of only two subspecies: Trachypithecus cristatus cristatus - Borneo, Sumatra, Natuna IslandsTrachypithecus cristatus selangorensis - Malay PeninsulaHowever, some older sources, such as Mammal Species of the World, still distinguish the silvery lutungs of the Natuna Islands as a separate subspecies, designated T. c. vigilans. 

The silvery lutung is a specialist folivore, including a higher proportion of leaves in its diet than any other colobine monkey. Although it does also eat fruit, and some seeds and flowers, these comprise only 9% of the diet, and it is also able to feed on tougher and more mature leaves than any of its close relatives. Because of these differences, silvery lutungs do not normally live in the same parts of the forest as other monkeys. Where other species are found in the same area, silvery lutungs are more commonly found in the middle canopy of the forest, leaving the higher branches to monkeys with a more frugivorous diet. Local predators able to feed on silvery lutungs include leopards, tigers, dholes, and some large snakes. Binturongs, civets, and various other small carnivores are probably able to feed on infants. Silvery lutungs are unusually susceptible to human diseases, including AIDS, and have therefore been widely used in medical research.

Woodpecker

The woodpeckers are part of the Picidae family, a group of near-passerine birds that also consist of piculets, wrynecks, and sapsuckers. Members of this family are found worldwide, except for Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, Madagascar, and the extreme polar regions. Most species live in forests or woodland habitats, although a few species are known to live in treeless areas, such as rocky hillsides and deserts.

The Picidae are just one of eight living families in the order Piciformes. Other members of Piciformes, such as the jacamars,puffbirds, barbets, toucans, and honeyguides, have traditionally been thought to be closely related to the woodpeckers, piculets, wrynecks, and sapsuckers. More recently, DNA sequence analyses have confirmed this view. There are about 200 species and about 30 genera in this family. Many species are threatened or endangered due to loss of habitat or habitat fragmentation. 

Two species of woodpeckers, the ivory-billed woodpecker and the imperial woodpecker, have been considered extinct for about 30 years although there has been speculation recently that these species may still exist.Members of the family Picidae have strong bills for drilling and drumming on trees and long sticky tongues for extracting food. Woodpecker bills are typically longer, sharper and stronger than the bills of piculets and wrynecks; however, theirmorphology is very similar. The bill's chisel-like tip is kept sharp by the pecking action in birds that regularly use it on wood. Species of woodpecker and flicker that use their bills in soil or for probing as opposed to regular hammering tend to have longer and more decurved bills. 

Due to their smaller bill size, many piculets and wrynecks will forage in decaying wood more often than woodpeckers. The long sticky tongues, which possess bristles, aid these birds in grabbing and extracting insects deep within a hole of a tree. It had been reported that the tongue was used to spear grubs, but more detailed studies published in 2004 have shown that the tongue instead wraps around the prey before being pulled out. Many of the foraging, breeding and signaling behaviors of woodpeckers involve drumming and hammering using the bill. To prevent brain damage from the rapid and repeated impacts, woodpeckers have evolved a number of adaptations to protect the brain. These include small brain size, the orientation of the brain within the skull which maximises the area of contact between the brain and the skull and the short duration of contact. The millisecond before contact with wood a thickened nictitating membrane closes, protecting the eye from flying debris. The nostrils are also protected; they are often slit-like and have special feathers to cover them. Woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks all possess zygodactyl feet. Zygodactyl feet consist of four toes, the first hallux and the fourth facing backward and the second and third facing forward. This foot arrangement is good for grasping the limbs and trunks of trees. Members of this family can walk vertically up a tree trunk, which is beneficial for activities such as foraging for food or nest excavation.

Emperor tamarin

The emperor tamarin, also known as the Brockway monkey,  Saguinus imperator, is a species of tamarin allegedly named for its resemblance to the German emperor Wilhelm II. It lives in the southwest Amazon Basin, in east Peru, northBolivia and in the west Brazilian states of Acre and Amazonas. The fur of the emperor tamarin is predominantly grey colored, with yellowish speckles on its chest. The hands and feet are black and the tail is brown. Outstanding is its long, white mustache, which extends to both sides beyond the shoulders. 

The animal reaches a length of 23–26 centimetres (9–10 in), plus a 35–41.5 cm (13.8–16.3 in) long tail. It weighs approximately 500 grams (18 oz). The Saguinus imperator belongs to the family Callitrichidae, which is a family of New World monkeys. The Callitrichidae contains the two general species of marmosets and tamarins. There are several different Saguinus groups within the Callitrichinae subfamily, including S. midas, S. mystax, S. nigricollis, S. bicolor, S. oedipus, and S. inustus. Saguinus imperator belongs to the S. mystax group. The emperor tamarin has two subspecies: Saguinus imperator imperator andSaguinus imperator subgrisescens. The predominant difference between the two is that Saguinus imerator subgrisecens has a long white beard, giving it its customary name the bearded emper.

There are claws on each of the animal’s toes and fingers, aside from the great toe which has a nail. While it has a definitive long mustache, it also has almost inconspicuous white hairs on its chin. Visually, however, the saguinus imperator has a black chin. The hair on its chest and belly are a mixture of red, orange, and white hairs. On its back, the fur is dark brown. The inner side of its arms and legs are an orange-like color.or tamarin.

 Saguinus imperator subgrisecens, the bearded emperor tamarin, typically has the same biological structur as S. imperator imperator. However, its main differences lie in the variation of color on its chest, belly, and arms. Also, in addition to its long white mustache, this subspecies has a large white-haired beard, unlike S. imperator imperator, which merely has faint black whiskers upon its chin.Aside from the color changes and visually striking beard, the two tamarins essentially have the same body structure. They are very small, compared to most other primates. Using their claws, they cling to tree branches, maintaining a consistent verticality in the jungle environment. To navigate their lush environment, which typically is in rainforests, they leap and move quickly through trees, rarely touching the forest floor.

Hyena

Hyenas or hyaenas from Greek ὕαινα hýaina are the animals of the family Hyaenidae haɪˈɛnᵻdi of the feliform suborder of the Carnivora. With only four extant species, it is the fifth-smallest biological family in the Carnivora, and one of the smallest in the class Mammalia.  Despite their low diversity, hyenas are unique and vital components of most Africanecosystems. Although phylogenetically they are closer to felines and viverrids, hyenas are behaviourally and morphologically similar tocanines in several aspects; both hyenas and canines are nonarboreal, cursorial hunters that catch prey with their teeth rather than claws. Both eat food quickly and may store it, and their calloused feet with large, blunt, nonretractable nails are adapted for running and making sharp turns. However, the hyenas' grooming, scent marking, defecating habits, mating, and parental behaviour are consistent with the behaviour of other feliforms.

Spotted hyenas may kill as many as 95% of the animals they eat, while striped hyenas are largely scavengers.[6] Generally, hyenas are known to drive off larger predators, like lions, from their kills, despite having a reputation in popular culture for being cowardly. Hyenas are primarily nocturnal animals, but sometimes venture from their lairs in the early-morning hours. With the exception of the highly social spotted hyena, hyenas are generally not gregarious animals, though they may live in family groups and congregate at kills.

Hyenas first arose in Eurasia during the Miocene period from viverrid-like ancestors, and soon became well known as being of two distinct types: the lightly built dog-like hyenas and the robust bone-crushing hyenas. Although the dog-like hyenas thrived 15 million years ago (with one taxon having colonised North America), they became extinct after a change in climate along with the arrival of canids into Eurasia. Of the dog-like hyena lineage, only the insectivorous aardwolf survived, while the bone-crushing hyenas (whose extant spotted, brown and striped hyenas) became the undisputed top scavengers of Eurasia and Africa. Hyenas feature prominently in the folklore and mythology of human cultures with which they are sympatric. Hyenas are commonly viewed as frightening and worthy of contempt, and are associated with witchcraft, because their body parts are used as ingredients in traditional medicine. In some cultures, hyenas are thought to influence people’s spirits, rob graves, and steal livestock and children. 
Hyenas originated in the jungles of Miocene Eurasia 22 million years ago, when most early feliform species were still largelyarboreal. The first ancestral hyenas were likely similar to the modern banded palm civet; one of the earliest hyena species described, Plioviverrops, was a lithe, civet-like animal that inhabited Eurasia 20–22 million years ago, and is identifiable as a hyaenid by the structure of the middle ear and dentition. The lineage of Plioviverrops prospered, and gave rise to descendants with longer legs and more pointed jaws, a direction similar to that taken by canids in North America. 

Jaguar

The jaguar Panthera onca is a big cat, a feline in the Panthera genus, and is the only extant Panthera species native to the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion, and the largest in the Americas. The jaguar's present range extends from Southwestern United States and Mexico across much of Central America and south to Paraguayand northern Argentina. Apart from a known and possibly breeding population in Arizona (southeast of Tucson) and the bootheel of New Mexico, the cat has largely been extirpated from the United States since the early 20th century.

This spotted cat most closely resembles the leopard physically, although it is usually larger and of sturdier build and its behavioral and habitat characteristics are closer to those of the tiger. While dense rainforest is its preferred habitat, the jaguar will range across a variety of forested and open terrains. Its preferred habitats are usually swamps and wooded regions, but jaguars also live in scrublands and deserts. 
The jaguar is notable, along with the tiger, as a feline that enjoys swimming. The jaguar is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush predator at the top of the food chain an apex predator. It is a keystone species, playing an important role in stabilizing ecosystems and regulating the populations of the animals it hunts. The jaguar has an exceptionally powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats. This allows it to pierce the shells of armored reptiles and to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull of prey between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain.The jaguar is a near threatened species and its numbers are declining. Threats include loss and fragmentation of habitat. While international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited, the cat is still frequently killed by humans, particularly in conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America. Although reduced, its range remains large. 
Given its historical distribution, the jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of numerous indigenous American cultures, including those of the Maya and Aztec.The word 'jaguar' comes to English from one of the Tupi Guarani languages, presumably the Amazonian trade language Tupinambá, via Portuguese jaguar. The Tupian word, yaguara beast, is sometimes translated as dog.The specific word for jaguar is yaguareté, with the suffix eté meaning real or true.
The first component of its taxonomic designation, Panthera, is Latin, from the Greek word for leopard, πάνθηρ, the type species for the genus. This has been said to derive from the παν

alland θήρ from θηρευτής "predator", meaning predator of all  animals, though this may be a folketymology may instead be ultimately of Sanskrit origin, from pundarikam, the Sanskrit word for tiger. In Mexican Spanish, its nickname is el tigre: 16th century Spaniards had no native word in their language for a cat smaller than a lion but bigger than a leopard nor had ever encountered such a creature in the Old World, and so named it after a cat whose ferocity would have only been known to them through Roman writings, popular literature during the Renaissance.Onca is the Portuguese onça, with the cedilla dropped for typographical reasons, found in English as ounce for the snow leopard, Panthera uncia. It derives from the Latin lyncea lynx, with the letter L confused with the definite article Italian lonza, Old French l'once. 

Gray Wolf

The gray wolf or grey wolf Canis lupus, also known as the timber wolf  or western wolf, is a canid native to the wilderness and remote areas of North America and Eurasia. It is the largest extant member of its family, with males averaging 43–45 kg 95–99 lb, and females 36

38.5 kg 79–85 lb. Like the red wolf, it is distinguished from other Canisspecies by its larger size and less pointed features, particularly on the ears and muzzle. Its winter fur is long and bushy, and predominantly a mottled gray in color, although nearly pure white, red, or brown to black also occur. As of 2005, 37subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3.

The gray wolf is the second most specialised member of the genus Canis, after the Ethiopian wolf, as demonstrated by itsmorphological adaptations to hunting large prey, its more gregarious nature, and its highly advanced expressive behavior. It is nonetheless closely related enough to smaller Canis species, such as the eastern wolf, coyote, andgolden jackal to produce fertile hybrids. It is the only species of Canis to have a range encompassing both the Old andNew Worlds, and originated in Eurasia during the Pleistocene, colonizing North America on at least three separate occasions during the Rancholabrean. It is a social animal, travelling in nuclear families consisting of a mated pair, accompanied by the pair's adult offspring. 

The gray wolf is typically an apex predator throughout its range, with onlyhumans and tigers  posing a serious threat to it. It feeds primarily on large ungulates, though it also eats smaller animals, livestock, carrion, and garbage.The gray wolf is one of the world's best known and well researched animals, with probably more books written about it than any other wildlife species.] It has a long history of association with humans, having been despised and hunted in mostpastoral communities because of its attacks on livestock, while conversely being respected in some agrarian and hunter-gatherer societies. 

Although the fear of wolves is pervasive in many human societies, the majority of recorded attacks on people have been attributed to animals suffering from rabies. Non-rabid wolves have attacked and killed people, mainly children, but this is rare, as wolves are relatively few, live away from people, and have developed a fear of humans from hunters and shepherds.

Canis lupus was recorded by Carl Linnaeus in his publication Systema Naturae in 1758. The Latin classification translates into English as dog wolf. Thesubspecies of Canis lupus are listed in Mammal Species of the World. The nominate subspecies is the Eurasian wolf (Canis lupus lupus), also known as the common wolf. As of 2005  37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3, however the classification of several as either species or subspecies has recently been challenged.

Leopard

The leopard Panthera pardus is one of the five "big cats" in the genus Panthera. It is a member of the family Felidae with a wide range in regions of sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia, the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia to Siberia. Fossil records found in Italy suggest that in the Pleistocene it ranged as far as Europe. Compared to other members of Felidae, the leopard has relatively short legs and a long body with a large skull. It is similar in appearance to the jaguar, but is smaller and more lightly built. Its fur is marked with rosettes similar to those of the jaguar, but the leopard's rosettes are smaller and more densely packed, and do not usually have central spots as the jaguar's do. Both leopards and jaguars that are melanistic are known as black panthers.

The leopard's success in the wild is due to its well camouflaged fur; its opportunistic hunting behaviour, broad diet, and strength to move heavy carcasses into trees; its ability to adapt to various habitats ranging from rainforest to steppe and including arid and montane areas; and to run at speeds up to 58 kilometres per hour (36 mph). It is listed as near threatened on the IUCN Red List because leopard populations are declining in large parts of their range. They are threatened by habitat loss and pest control. Their habitats are fragmented and they are illegally hunted so that their pelts may be sold in wildlife trade for medicinal practices and decoration. 
They have been extirpated in Hong Kong,Singapore, Kuwait, Syria, Libya, Tunisia and most likely Morocco. The leopard is one of the five extant species of the genus Panthera, which also includes the jaguar P. onca, the lion P. leo, the snow leopard P. uncia; sometimes placed in Uncia, a separate genus of its own and the tiger P. tigris. 
This genus, along with the genus Neofelis - which consists of the clouded leopard N. nebulosa and the Sunda clouded leopard N. dardi - forms the subfamily Pantherinae of the Felidae. The leopard was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758). Linnaeus named the leopard as Felis pardus, placing it in the genusFelis along with the domestic cat, the jaguar, the Eurasian lynx, the lion, the ocelot and the tiger. In the 18th and 19th centuries, most naturalists and taxonomists followed his example. In 1816, Lorenz Oken proposed a definition of the genusPanthera, with a subgenus Panthera using F. pardus as a type species. Oken's classification, however, was not widely accepted, and until the early 20th century continued using Felis or Leopardus when describing leopard subspecies. In 1916, British zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock accorded Panthera generic rank defining Panthera pardus as species. The leopard is part of the Panthera lineage, one of the eight lineages of Felidae. This lineage comprises the species ofPanthera and Neofelis. The clouded leopard diverged first from the lineage, followed by the snow leopard. Subsequent branching began two to three million years ago, but the details of this are disputed.  A 2006 phylogenetic study by Warren E. Johnson (of the National Cancer Institute) and colleagues, based on nDNA and mtDNA analysis, showed that the leopard is sister to two clades within Panthera - one consisting of the tiger and the snow leopard, and the other of the lion and the jaguar. This was seconded by a 2009 study by Lars Werdelin and colleagues. However, the results obtained in a 2010 study by Brian W. Davis (of the Texas A&M University) and colleagues and a 2011 study by Ji H. Mazák (of the Shanghai Science and Technology Museum) and colleagues showed a swapping between the leopard and the jaguar in the cladogram. Results of a 2001 phylogenetic analysis of chemical secretions amongst cats suggested, however, that the leopard is closely related to the lion.

Common snapping turtle

The common snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina is a large freshwater turtle of the family Chelydridae. Its natural range extends from southeastern Canada, southwest to the edge of the Rocky Mountains, as far east as Nova Scotia and Florida. This species and the larger alligator snapping turtle are the only two species in this family found in North America (though the common snapping turtle, as its name implies, is much more widespread). The common snapping turtle is noted for its combative disposition when out of the water with its powerful beak-like jaws, and highly mobile head and neck hence the specific name serpentina, meaning snake-like. In water, they are likely to flee and hide themselves underwater in sediment.

 Snapping turtles have a life-history strategy characterized by high and variable mortality of embryos and hatchlings, delayed sexual maturity, extended adult longevity, and iteroparity (repeated reproductive events) with low reproductive success per reproductive event. Females, and presumably also males, in more northern populations mature later at 15–20 years and at a larger size than in more southern populations about 12 years. Lifespan in the wild is poorly known, but long-term mark-recapture data from Algonquin Park in Ontario, Canada suggest a maximum age over 100 years.

C. serpentina has a rugged, muscular build with ridged carapaces (though ridges tend to be more pronounced in younger individuals). 

The carapace (upper shell) length in adulthood may be nearly 50 cm (20 in), though 25–47 cm (9.8–18.5 in), is more common. C. serpentina usually weighs 4.5–16 kg (9.9–35.3 lb). Per one study, breeding common snapping turtles were found to average 28.5 cm (11.2 in) in carapace length, 22.5 cm (8.9 in) in plastron length and weigh about 6 kg (13 lb). Males are larger than females, with almost all animals weighing in excess of 10 kg (22 lb) being male and quite old, as the species continues to grow throughout life. 

Any specimen above the aforementioned weights are exceptional, but the heaviest wild specimen caught reportedly weighed 34 kg (75 lb). Snapping turtles kept in captivity can be quite overweight due to overfeeding and have weighed as much as 39 kg (86 lb). In the northern part of its range, the common snappCommon habitats are shallow ponds or streams. Some may inhabit brackish environments, such as estuaries. Common snapping turtles sometimes bask though rarely observed by floating on the surface with only their carapaces exposed, though in the northern parts of their range, they also readily bask on fallen logs in early spring. In shallow waters, common snapping turtles may lie beneath a muddy bottom with only their heads exposed, stretching their long necks to the surface for an occasional breath (their nostrils are positioned on the very tip of the snout, effectively functioning as snorkels). Snapping turtles consume both plant and animal matter, and are important aquatic scavengers, but they are also active hunters that prey on anything they can swallow, including many invertebrates, fish, frogs, reptiles (including snakes and smaller turtles), unwary birds, and small mammals. In some areas, adult snapping turtles can be incidentally detrimental to breeding waterfowl, as they will occasionally take ducklings and goslings but their effect on such prey is frequently exaggerated. ing turtle is often the heaviest native freshwater turtle.

Indian vulture

 The Indian vulture Gyps indicus is an Old World vulture and is closely related to the griffon vulture, G. fulvus. It breeds mainly on hilly crags in central and peninsular India. The birds in the northern part of its range once considered a subspeciesare now treated as a separate species, the slender-billed vulture Gyps tenuirostris. These were lumped together under the name long-billed vulture. The long-billed vulture is a typical vulture, with a bald head, very broad wings and short tail feathers. It is smaller and less heavily built than the Eurasian Griffon, usually weighing between 5.5 and 6.3 kg 12–13.9 lbs and measuring 80–103 cm 31–41 in long and 1.96 to 2.38 m 6.4 to 7.8 ft across the wings. It is distinguished from that species by its less buff body an The species breeds mainly on cliffs, but is known to use trees to nest in Rajasthan. It may also breed on high human-made structures (like the Chaturbhuj Temple in the picture). 

Like other vultures it is a scavenger, feeding mostly from carcasses of dead animals which it finds by soaring over savannah and around human habitation. They often move in flocks.d wing coverts. It also Main article: 

The Indian vulture and the white-rumped vulture, G. bengalensis species have suffered a 99%–97% population decrease in Bangladesh, Pakistan and India. Between 2000-2007 annual decline rates of this species and the slender-billed vulture averaged over sixteen percent. The cause of this has been identified as poisoning caused by the veterinary drug diclofenac. Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and when given to working animals it can reduce joint pain and so keep them working for longer. The drug is believed to be swallowed by vultures with the flesh of dead cattle who were given diclofenac in the last days of life.

lacks the whitish median covert bar shown by Griffon. Diclofenac causes kidney failure in several species of vultures. In March 2006 the Indian Government announced its support for a ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac. Another NSAID, meloxicam, has been found to be harmless to vultures and should prove to be an acceptable substitute for diclofenac. When meloxicam production is increased it is hoped that it will be as cheap as diclofenac. As of August 2011 the ban for veterinary use for approximately a year did not prevent diclofenac use across India. Small numbers of bird Captive-breeding programmes for several species of Indian vulture have been started. The vultures are long lived and slow in breeding, so the programmes are expected to take decades. Vultures reach breeding age at about five years old. It is hoped that captive-bred birds will be released to the wild when the environment is clear of diclofenac.

In early 2014 the Saving Asia’s Vultures from Extinction (Save) programme announced that it expects to start releasing captive-bred birds into the wild by 2016.

s have bred across peninsular India, in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Nilgai

The nilgai or blue bull Boselaphus tragocamelus sometimes called the neelghae or nilgau, is the largest Asian antelope. The sole member of the genus Boselaphus, the species was first described by German zoologistPeter Simon Pallas in 1766. It stands 1–1.5 metres (3.3–4.9 ft) at the shoulder. Males weigh 109–288 kilograms (240–635 lb); females are lighter, weighing 100–213 kilograms (220–470 lb). A sturdy thin-legged antelope, the nilgai is characterised by a sloping back, a deep neck with a white patch on the throat, a short crest of hair along the neck and terminating in a tuft, and white facial spots. A tubular column of coarse hair, known as the "pennant", can be observed on the throat below the white patch. Sexual dimorphism is prominent: while the females and the juveniles are orange to tawny, the males have a bluish grey coat. Only males possess horns, 15–24 centimetres (5.9–9.4 in) long.

The nilgai is diurnal (active mainly during the day). Three distinct groups can be observed in most cases: one or two females with young calves, three to six adult and yearling females with calves, and male groups with two to 18 members. Typically tame, the nilgai may appear timid and cautious if harassed or alarmed; it would flee up to 300 metres (980 ft)-or even 700 metres (2,300 ft) on galloping away from the danger. Herbivores, the nilgai prefer grasses and herbs; woody plants are commonly eaten in the dry tropical forests of India. Females become sexually mature by two years, while males become sexually active only at four or five years. The time of the year when mating takes place varies by location, but a peak of three to four months can be observed at most places. Gestation lasts eight to nine months, following which a single calf or twins (even triplets at times) are born. As typical of several bovid species, nilgai calves are kept in hiding for the first few weeks of their lives. 
The lifespan of the nilgai is typically ten years in Texas.

Nilgai prefer areas with short bushes and scattered trees in scrub forests and grassy plains. They are common in agricultural lands, but hardly occur in dense woods. This antelope is endemic to the Indian subcontinent: major populations occur in the Terai lowlands in the foothills of the Himalayas (northern India), but the antelope is sparsely found in Nepal and Pakistan and is extinct in Bangladesh. 
The nilgai were first introduced to Texas in the 1920s and the 1930s. As of 2008, the feral population in Texas summed up to nearly 37,000. The nilgai is categorised as of Least Concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural resources (IUCN).

The nilgai has been associated with Indian culture since the Vedic period (1500-500 BCE). It has been significant in theMughal era (16th to 19th centuries). Hindus consider the nilgai as sacred and revere by associating it with the cow, the mother animal in Hinduism, through its name and loosely similar physical features. The nilgai have been a menace across several north Indian states as they ravage crop fields and cause financial damage to farmers. The nilgai has been declared a vermin in Bihar.

Monkey

Monkeys are haplorhine dry-nosed primates, a paraphyletic group generally possessing tails and consisting of approximately 260 known living species. Many monkey species are tree-dwelling arboreal, although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Most species are also active during the day diurnal. Monkeys are generallyconsidered to be intelligent, particularly Old World monkeys.

Lemurs, lorises, and galagos are not monkeys; instead they are strepsirrhine wet-nosed primates. Like monkeys, tarsiersare haplorhine primates; however, they are also not monkeys. There are two major types of monkey: New World monkeys platyrrhines from South and Central America and Old World monkeyscatarrhines of the superfamily Cercopithecoidea from Africa and Asia. Hominoid apes gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans, which all lack tails, are also catarrhines but are not considered monkeys. Tailless monkeys may be called apes, incorrectly according to modern usage; thus the tailless Barbary macaque is sometimes called the Barbary ape. Because Old World monkeys are more closely related to hominoid apes than to New World monkeys, yet the term monkey excludes these closer relatives, monkeys are referred to as a paraphyletic group. Simians monkeys and tarsiers emerged within haplorrhines some 60 million years ago. New World monkeys and catarrhine monkeys emerged within the simians some 35 millions years ago. Old World monkeys and Hominoidea emerged within the catarrhine monkeys some 25 millions years ago. Extinct basal simians such as Aegyptopithecus or Parapithecus 35-32 million years ago are also considered monkeys by primatologists.

According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word "monkey" may originate in a German version of the Reynard the Foxfable, published circa 1580. In this version of the fable, a character named Moneke is the son of Martin the Ape. In English, no very clear distinction was originally made between "ape" and "monkey"; thus the 1910 Encyclopædia Britannica entry for "ape" notes that it is either a synonym for "monkey" or is used to mean a tailless humanlike primate. Colloquially, the terms "monkey" and "ape" are widely used interchangeably. Also, a few monkey species have the word "ape" in their common name, such as the Barbary ape

. ater in the first half of the 20th century, the idea developed that there were trends in primate evolution and that the living members of the order could be arranged in a series, leading through "monkeys" and "apes" to humans. Monkeys thus constituted a "grade" on the path to humans and were distinguished from "apes".

Scientific classifications are now more often based on monophyletic groups, that is groups consisting of all the descendants of a common ancestor. The New World monkeys and the Old World monkeys are each monophyletic groups, but their combination is not, since it excludes 

Ruffed lemur

The ruffed lemurs of the genus Varecia are strepsirrhine primates and the largest extant lemurs within the familyLemuridae. Like all living lemurs, they are found only on the island of Madagascar. Formerly considered to be a monotypicgenus, two species are now recognized: the black-and-white ruffed lemur, with its three subspecies, and the red ruffed lemur.

Ruffed lemurs are diurnal and arboreal quadrupeds, often observed leaping through the upper canopy of the seasonaltropical rainforests in eastern Madagascar. 

 They are also the most frugivorous of the Malagasy lemurs, and they are very sensitive to habitat disturbance. Ruffed lemurs live in multi-male/multi-female groups and have a complex and flexible social structure, described as fission-fusion. They are highly vocal, and have loud, raucous calls.

Ruffed lemurs are seasonal breeders and highly unusual in their reproductive strategy. They are considered an "evolutionary enigma" in that they are the largest of the extant species in Lemuridae, yet exhibit reproductive traits more common in small, nocturnal lemurs, such as short gestation periods (~102 days) and relatively large average litter sizes (~2–3). Ruffed lemurs also build nests for their newborns (the only primates that do so), carry them by mouth, and exhibit an absentee parental system by stashing them while they forage. 

Infants are altricial, although they develop relatively quickly, traveling independently in the wild after 70 days and attaining full adult size by six months.

Threatened by habitat loss and hunting, ruffed lemurs are facing extinction in the wild. However, they reproduce readily in captivity, and have been gradually re-introduced into the wild since 1997. Organizations that are involved in ruffed lemur conservation include the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, the Lemur Conservation Foundation (LCF), the Madagascar Fauna Group (MFG), Monkeyland Primate Sanctuary in South Africa, Wildlife Trust, and the Duke Lemur Center (DLC). Lemurs are not known in the fossil record on Madagascar until the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Consequently, little is known about the evolution of ruffed lemurs, let alone the entire lemur clade, which comprises the endemic primate population of the island.

 Although there is still much debate about the origins of lemurs on Madagascar, it is generally accepted that a single rafting event, similar to the one that brought New World monkeys to South America, occurred around 50–80 million years ago and allowed ancestral lemurs to cross the Mozambique Channel and colonize the island, which had already split from Africa (while it was joined to the Indian subcontinent), approximately 160 million years ago. 
The resulting founder effect and either non-existent or inferior competition resulted in speciation as the lemur ancestors radiated out to fill open or insufficiently guarded niches. Today, the endemic primate fauna of Madagascar contains over three-quarters of the extant species of the suborder Strepsirrhini, which had been abundant throughout Laurasia and Africa during the Paleocene and Eocene epochs.

Raccoon dog

The raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides, from the Greek words nukt night  ereutēs, wanderer  prokuōn, before-dog but in New Latin used to mean raccoon oidēs oid also known as the mangut or tanuki, is a canidindigenous to East Asia. It is the only extant species in the genus Nyctereutes. It is considered a basal canid species, resembling ancestral forms of the family. Among the Canidae, the raccoon dog shares the habit of regularly climbing trees only with the North American gray fox, another basal species. 

The raccoon dog is named for its superficial resemblance to the raccoon (Procyon lotor), to which it is not closely related.

Native East Asian raccoon dog populations have declined in recent years due to hunting, fur trade, urbanization, an increase of animals associated with human civilization such as pets and abandoned animals, and diseases that may be transmittedbetween them. Following its introduction into central and western Europe, however, it has been treated as a potentially hazardous invasive species.

Raccoon dog skulls greatly resemble those of South American foxes, particularlycrab-eating foxes, though genetic studies reveal they are not closely related. Their skulls are small, but sturdily built and moderately elongated, with narrow zygomatic arches. The projections of the skull are well developed, the sagittal crest being particularly prominent in old animals.

In reflection of their omnivorous diets, raccoon dogs have small and weak canines and carnassials, flat molars and relatively long intestines (1.5–2 times longer than other canids). They have long torsos and short legs. Total lengths can range from 45 to 71 cm (18 to 28 in). The tail, at 12 to 18 cm (4.7 to 7.1 in) long, is short, amounting to less than 1/3 of the animal's total length and hangs below the tarsal joints without touching the ground. The ears are short and protrude only slightly from the fur.

Weights fluctuate according to season: in March they weigh 3 kg (6.6 lbs), while in August to early September males average 6.5–7 kg (14–15 lbs), with some individuals attaining a maximal weight of 9–10 kg (20–22 lb). Specimens from Japanese and Russian studies have been shown to be on average larger than those from Chinese studies.

The winter fur is long and thick with dense underfur and coarse guard hairs measuring 120 mm in length. The winter fur protects raccoon dogs from low temperatures ranging down to −20° to −25 °C. It is of a dirty, earth-brown or brownish-grey colour with black guard hairs. The tail is darker than the torso. A dark stripe is present on the back which broadens on the shoulders, forming a cross shape. The abdomen is yellowish-brown, while the chest is dark brown or blackish. The muzzle is covered in short hair, which increases in length and quantity behind the eyes. The cheeks are coated with long, whisker-like hairs. The summer fur is brighter and reddish-straw coloured.